American Medical Trainee Perspectives on Ethical Conflicts during a Short-Term Global Health Rotation in Ethiopia: A Qualitative Analysis of 30 Cases.

There has been a significant increase in the number of students, residents, and fellows from high-income settings participating in short-term global health experiences (STGHEs) during their medical training. This analysis explores a series of ethical conflicts reported by medical residents and fellows from Emory University School of Medicine in the United States who participated in a 1-month global health rotation in Ethiopia. A constant comparative analysis was conducted using 30 consecutive reflective essays to identify emerging categories and themes of ethical conflicts experienced by the trainees. Ethical conflicts were internal; based in the presence of the visiting trainee and their personal interactions; or external, occurring due to witnessed events. Themes within internal conflicts include issues around professional identity and insufficient preparation for the rotation. External experiences were further stratified by the trainee's perception that Ethiopian colleagues agreed that the scenario represented an ethical conflict (congruent) or disagreed with the visiting trainee's perspective (incongruent). Examples of congruent themes included recognizing opportunities for collaboration and witnessing ethical conflicts that are similar to those experienced in the United States. Incongruent themes included utilization of existing resources, issues surrounding informed consent, and differing expectations of clinical outcomes. By acknowledging the frequency and roots of ethical conflicts experienced during STGHEs, sponsors may better prepare visiting trainees and reframe these conflicts as collaborative educational experiences that benefit both the visiting trainee and host providers.

When International Humanitarian or Medical Missions Go Wrong: An Ethical Analysis.

Recent decades have seen a significant increase in physicians participating in international short-term missions to regions with limited or no access to health care by virtue of natural disaster or lack of resources. Recent publications in the ethics literature have explored the potential of these missions for unintentional harm to the intended beneficiaries. Less has been discussed about how to respond when harm actually occurs. The authors review the ethical issues raised by short-term medical and humanitarian missions and the literature on responding to unintended error to provide guidelines for avoiding harm to the intended beneficiaries of missions and an appropriate response when harm occurs. Two cases demonstrating an analysis and response to unintended harm are presented.

The Ban on US Government Funding Research Using Human Fetal Tissues: How Does This Fit with the NIH Mission to Advance Medical Science for the Benefit of the Citizenry?

Some have argued that human fetal tissue research is unnecessary and/or immoral. Recently, the Trump administration has taken the drastic--and we believe misguided--step to effectively ban government-funded research on fetal tissue altogether. In this article, we show that entire lines of research and their clinical outcomes would not have progressed had fetal tissue been unavailable. We argue that this research has been carried out in a manner that is ethical and legal, and that it has provided knowledge that has saved lives, particularly those of pregnant women, their unborn fetuses, and newborns. We believe that those who support a ban on the use of fetal tissue are halting medical progress and therefore endangering the health and lives of many, and for this they should accept responsibility. At the very least, we challenge them to be true to their beliefs: if they wish to short-circuit a scientific process that has led to medical advances, they should pledge to not accept for themselves the health benefits that such advances provide.

Breaking a Vital Trust: Posting Photos of Patients on Facebook Among a Sample of Peruvian Medical Students.

Background: The doctor-patient relationship may be affected by the indiscriminate use of social media platforms. The aim of this study was to evaluate the content of the photos posted on medical students' Facebook accounts to determine whether they have posted private patient information and compare this to their self-reported behavior of posting such photos. Methods: We performed a cross-sectional study of medical students from a Peruvian private university. With their permission, we reviewed their Facebook accounts for the publication of photos or documents that included private patient information (face, name, diagnosis, medical exams). Those who allowed access to their Facebook accounts were also asked to complete an online survey. We assessed variables related to sociodemographic aspects, self reported Facebook use, and what type of private patient information they posted. Results: A total of 160/220 students joined the study, 59% were women, mean age: 20 years. 25.7% self-reported having posted private patient information in their Facebook profiles but we found such information on 33.1% of the students' pages. Of the pages where private patient information was found, in 94% of cases, the patients' faces were identifiable, and in 7.6%, the patients' real names appeared. However, only half of the students believed that the information in their Facebook post might affect or influence the doctor-patient relationship. Association with narcissism, gender, and account privacy was not found. Having uploaded more than 250 photos (OR:2.90; CI95%:1.14-7.39) and posting photos tagged with the location of a hospital (OR:4.02; CI95%:1.36-11.9) were associated with having posted photos containing private patient information. Conclusion: One out of three of medical students posted patients' private information on their personal Facebook profiles. Development, dissemination, and implementation of guidelines related to ethics in social media platforms are needed.

Who Is Served Best by Health Professions Service Learning Trips?

Service learning trips can be a powerful means of fostering cultural competency as well as an opportunity for students to expand their clinical skill set. However, if not planned and executed thoughtfully, they might not provide lasting benefit to the communities they seek to serve. Through analysis of a case in which participants question the value of their short-term international service learning trip, we argue that such trips should be designed with the community's needs in mind, preferably as identified by the community. Ideally, both the service group and the community should seek opportunities for teaching and exchange in order to expand the community's ability to provide care to the local population long after the service learning group has left.

How Should Mission Trips Be Administered?

Opportunities to study and practice health-related professions internationally offer transformative benefits for patients, educators, and students. Institutions and educators should model ethical behavior and set examples for global health trainees. Toward this end, it is imperative that universities engaging in international immersion experiences ensure that principles of respect, beneficence, and justice are upheld.

How Should We Decide Whether and When Some Care Is Better Than No Care?

This case of cleft lip and palate repair by a surgical mission team is common. Low-risk, single-procedure surgical interventions requiring minimal follow-up with substantial quality of life improvement are well suited for this type of mission. However, cleft repair can also be quite complex and require multiple surgeries and other care over time, postoperative surveillance, and speech therapy. These benefits and burdens prompt us to investigate, from clinical and ethical perspectives, whether and when some surgical care is better than none. We argue that, when performing surgical interventions in low- and middle-income countries, mission teams should consider a systems-based approach that emphasizes collaboration, context, and sustainability.

Voluntourism.

A rise in international medical volunteering (IMV) poses complex issues for organizations, clinicians, and trainees to navigate. This article explores ethical implications of IMV, such as scope of practice, continuity of care, and erosion of local health systems, and offers a personal perspective from a related field.

Not Above the Law: A Legal and Ethical Analysis of Short-Term Experiences in Global Health.

BACKGROUND: Persons from high-income countries have multiple opportunities today to participate in "short-term experiences in global health" (STEGHs) in low-resourced countries. STEGHs are organized through religious missions, service learning, medical internships, global health education, and international electives. An issue of increasing concern in STEGHs is "hands-on" participation in clinical procedures by volunteers and students with limited or no medical training. To address these concerns, best practices and ethical standards have been developed. However, not all STEGH organizations adhere to these guidelines, and some actively or tacitly allow unethical and potentially illegal practices. OBJECTIVES: This paper considers the legal framework within which STEGHs operate. It assesses whether certain STEGH practices break laws in the US and/or host countries or violate international "soft" legal norms. Two activities of particular concern are: practicing medicine without a license and drug importation and distribution. CONCLUSIONS: Many activities undertaken in STEGHs would be illegal if they took place on US soil. In addition, these same activities are often illegal in the host countries where STEGHs operate, although compliance is unevenly enforced. Many STEGH activities violate World Health Organization guidelines for ethical conduct in humanitarian activities. RECOMMENDATIONS: This paper encourages STEGH organizations to end unethical and potentially illegal activities; urges regulatory and non-regulatory stakeholders to alter policies that motivate participation in illegal or unethical STEGH activities; and encourages host countries to enforce their local and national health laws.

Ethics in humanitarian efforts: giving due credit to the local team.

BACKGROUND: It has become increasingly apparent that only the truly effective humanitarian work emphasises empowering local practitioners. One problem, though, is that we are often seen as the "experts" who have come to "save" the children. This perception may adversely affect the confidence in the country's own providers. METHODS: Non-profit organisations performing paediatric heart surgery in developing countries were identified from two sources: the CTSnet "volunteerism" web page and an Internet search using the term "Pediatric Heart Surgery Medical Mission." The website of each organisation was reviewed, seeking a "purpose" or "mission" statement or summary of the organisation's work. A separate Internet search of news articles was performed. The top five articles were analysed for each organisation, and the findings are then analysed using the Principlist and Utilitarian ethical systems. RESULTS: A total of 10 separate non-profit organisations were identified. The websites of eight (80%) placed significant emphasis on the educational aspects of their work and/or on interaction with local professionals. However, of 43 news articles reviewed, reporters mentioned education of, or interaction with, local professionals in only 14 (33%), and four out of 10 organisations studied had no mention of the local providers in any article. CONCLUSIONS: Although non-profit organisations emphasise the teaching and programme-building aspects of their efforts, media reports largely focus on simpler and more emotional stories such as patient successes or large donations. Acknowledgement of the clinical and financial contributions of the host countries is both a duty following from the principle of justice and an important factor in long-term programme building.

Affecting the Global Burden of Surgical Disease: Incorporating Surgical Training into International Missions: A Systematic Review.

The global burden of surgical disease is immense. Increasingly in the past several decades, international humanitarian medical missions have become more popular as a method of managing the sheer volume of patients requiring medical care worldwide. Medical education programmes have also had an increase in interest amongst medical students and surgical residents to participate in missions during training. The current review was planned to present the current body of literature on international experiences in residency training programmes. It comprised relevant literatur obtained from Medline (ubMed) using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta- Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A total of 15 publications were reviewed with each falling into one of the threeidentified categories:programme design (goals/objectives), ethics, and post-experience analysis. The benefits of providing international missions opportunities for surgical trainees cannot be understated.

Moral Agency in the Context of Global Volunteering.

Today there are many global volunteer opportunities for nurses and student nurses. While the intentions of volunteers may be good, the result may be harmful to the volunteer and/or the host, creating a situation of moral distress. An ethical code provides guidance and promotes moral agency. We discuss elements of the American Nurses Association Code of Ethics with Interpretive Statements and apply them to the experience of global volunteering through a case study approach.

The ethical experiences of trainees on short-term international trips: a systematic qualitative synthesis.

BACKGROUND: Medical student and resident participation in short-term international trips for trainees (STINTTs) has increased in the past few decades. However, there has been no systematic review of trainees' actual ethical experiences. The authors sought to identify what ethical issues medical trainees encounter during STINTTs, as elicited by and reported in peer-reviewed, quantitative and qualitative research papers. METHODS: The authors systematically searched five academic databases finding 659 unique titles and abstracts. The authors applied inclusion and exclusion criteria to these titles and abstracts resulting in fourteen papers, which were analyzed using qualitative thematic synthesis. RESULTS: The qualitative analysis of the papers generated four themes: (1) Trainees' Concerns Over Perpetuating Medical Tourism; (2) Struggling to Identify and Balance the Benefits and Harms of STINTTs; (3) The Complicated Trainee Mens (mind); and (4) Ethical Situations Encountered by Trainees. The fourth theme, which was the largest, was further divided into (a) Navigating social and cultural dynamics, (b) Trainees' experiences related to the learner role, and (c) Ethical situations not qualifying for other catagories. Some of these issues reported in the empirical research papers are well represented in the broader literature on STINTTs, while others were less so-such as mistreatment of trainees. All included papers were published after 2010, and comprised a total of less than 170 medical trainees. CONCLUSIONS: Medical trainees report experiencing a wide range of ethical challenges during short-term international trips in which they engage in clinical or research activities. The authors call educators' attention to specific challenges that trainees face. The relevant literature covering US and Canadian STINTTs is relatively young and largely qualitative. The authors briefly sketch a program for expanding the research on this increasingly common educational experience.

Short-Term Medical Missions: Toward an Ethical Approach.

Projects must have clearly stated intentions and sustainability plans.

Looking good but doing harm? Perceptions of short-term medical missions in Nicaragua.

In this paper, we present findings from a qualitative study that gathered Nicaraguans' perceptions of short-term foreign medical missions, towards deepening the understanding of what Nicaraguans value or find limited in the work of such foreign missions operating in their country. Fifty-two interviews were conducted with patients, relatives of patients, Nicaraguan physicians and nurses who partnered with or observed missions at work, 'beneficiary' community leaders, and individuals who were unable or unwilling to access mission-provided healthcare. Factors underlying participants' positive and more critical accounts of foreign primary and surgical missions are described and analysed. Empirical investigation on how, whether or not, or on what bases short-term medical missions (STMs) have been perceived as beneficial, harmful, or otherwise by those on the receiving end of these efforts is limited. This study aims to contribute to the evidence base for reflecting on the ethical performance of trans-national STMs.

ACOG Committee Opinion No. 759 Summary: Ethical Considerations for Performing Gynecologic Surgery in Low-Resource Settings Abroad.

Global surgical care programs present obstetrician-gynecologists with important opportunities to address disparities in women's health and health care worldwide. However, these programs also present a unique set of practical and ethical challenges. Obstetrician-gynecologists are encouraged to participate in surgical care efforts abroad while taking the necessary steps to ensure that their patients can make informed decisions and receive benefit from and are not harmed by their surgical care. In this document, the Committee on Ethics highlights some of the ethical issues that may arise when providing surgical care in low-resource settings to help guide obstetrician-gynecologists in providing the best care possible. This document has been updated to broaden its focus beyond the example of obstetric fistulae, to address issues pertinent to medical trainees, and to include new information to guide physicians' return home from participation in global surgical care programs. Although clinical research has an important role in the surgical care of patients in global settings, a complete discussion of the conduct of ethical research in global settings is beyond the scope of this document.

ACOG Committee Opinion No. 759: Ethical Considerations for Performing Gynecologic Surgery in Low-Resource Settings Abroad.

Global surgical care programs present obstetrician-gynecologists with important opportunities to address disparities in women's health and health care worldwide. However, these programs also present a unique set of practical and ethical challenges. Obstetrician-gynecologists are encouraged to participate in surgical care efforts abroad while taking the necessary steps to ensure that their patients can make informed decisions and receive benefit from and are not harmed by their surgical care. In this document, the Committee on Ethics highlights some of the ethical issues that may arise when providing surgical care in low-resource settings to help guide obstetrician-gynecologists in providing the best care possible. This document has been updated to broaden its focus beyond the example of obstetric fistulae, to address issues pertinent to medical trainees, and to include new information to guide physicians' return home from participation in global surgical care programs. Although clinical research has an important role in the surgical care of patients in global settings, a complete discussion of the conduct of ethical research in global settings is beyond the scope of this document.

Cooperación internacional ¿en qué estamos y hacia dónde vamos? / International cooperation. Where are we, and where are we heading to?

Unmet needs in global health are important issues, not yet solved by the international community. A variety of individuals, non-governmental organizations (NGO) and government institutions have tried to address this situation, developing multiple types of international cooperation (IC), such as humanitarian aid (HA), cooperation for development (CD) and medical missions (MM). In the last decades, we have witnessed an exponential growth in the creation and participation of these projects. Moreover, in the last 20 years, Chile has experimented a real paradigm switch, from a receiver to a provider of IC. Due to the recent surge in interest and relevance of the topic, we performed a narrative revision of the literature related with IC. In the present article, we characterize the different types of IC, with emphasis in MM: we address the risks, controversies and ethical problems associated with these activities. We finally propose some guidelines for the future development and promotion of MM.